Much of this type of exchange is linked to rational action as per Max Webers concepts of rationality. Ones and the others alternatives are measured by the number of alternatives times their value, which is the value of the alternative times its probability. While her husbands father dies soon after they are married, she entertains guests with the purpose of advancing her husbands sales career in business machines. In table 5.1, I present eleven different exchange relationships divided between restricted and generalized exchange, but I will only go over the main points. He questions George Herbert Meads predication of symbolic interaction as being based on sociation, which is the general consensual pursuit of cooperate social relations. In network terms, these processes are more reliant on strong ties than weak ties (Granovetter 1973). However, in this book, I find that they can be profitably put together or synthesized. 2014: 46-47; Reynolds 1987). Social exchange is more generalized exchange as one might pursue in ones family or friend network. In the bottom half of the table that describes low status, there are also three reactions. In a way, symbolic interactionism is a liberating and emancipating force Similarly, powerful groups of people or structure can impose their will upon others with complete disregard for social beliefs. Although Boston elites tended to discriminate against the Irish, some Irish social entrepreneurs become more powerful over time. Instead Athens prefers to see the pursuit of power as the basic motivating force for human beings and their groups. Economists would like to apply restricted exchange to all types of social exchange (e.g., Gary Beckers rational account of marriages and partnerships, and also sociobiological theories that see couples maximizing their gene pools for reproduction). Although the favored Joe Jr. died in World War II, Joseph Kennedys sons John F., Robert and Ted Kennedy had peak political careers. Symbolic Interactionism Whereas the functionalist and conflict perspectives are macro approaches, symbolic interactionism is a micro approach that focuses on the interaction of individuals and on how they interpret their interaction. George Herbert Mead does not say much about power in his social psychological theory, and when encountering the topic, the authoritative symbolic interactionist text by Sandstrom, Lively, Martin and Fine (2014: 177-184) after a very brief review of the concept largely embraces the social exchange theory of Richard Emerson (1962) that sees power as dependency. Thus, the social mobility process is not just a reaction to blockages, but it is a creative process of external valuation through generalized others, and internal identification through self-processes. Closer relationships like kin and close friends are more often in a generalized exchange relationship with a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships. Or if the exchange is to take place over a long period of time, perhaps for loans and bond purchases, the arrangement is firmly structured with a contract that covers many different aspects of the exchange. Sometimes these exchanges are made more long-term, but they are carefully guarded by contracts assuring each partys interests are protected. Oppressive othering has been largely ignored as a general social process though labeling theory comes close to it. They engage in counter-othering which is the angry rejection of the imposed reflected appraisals of high-status people that intend to demean and reject them. Restricted and generalized exchange relate to how generalized others are constructed. Power in Symbolic Interactionism via Social Exchange Theory. The grandmother mentions the specific dress that the young girl wants at the most expensive boutique in town, and the scion she works for says, I know the owner of the store; I can talk to her. The grandmother then tells her granddaughter that the dress has been marked down by 70% of the original price so that it is the same price as the department store dress. In generalized exchange, there are five different types (Ekeh 1974: 50; Janoski 1998: 82-85). Closer relationships like kin and close friends are more often in a generalized exchange relationship with a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships. This means that for those who go upward on the social scale, some will go downward. For example, an individual receiving unemployment insurance promises to be ready and able to work, and to search for work and fail in order to receive the benefit. Schwalbe et al. In row 2 (items 4, 5 and 6) high ranking people have largely inherited their rank by ascriptive principles and they rely on their traditional positions but may need to engage in defensive othering and internalization, In row 3 (items 7, 8 and 9), some people have high rank due to bias and discrimination and they are quite insecure and very much subject to downward mobility. In row 6 (items 16, 17 and 18) lower status persons with perhaps certain abilities and talents that they themselves recognize view their low status as being due to discrimination and bias coming from higher status persons. Subjective meanings are given primacy because it is believed that people behave based on what they believe and not just on what is objectively true. Gender inequality is almost always prominent towards a female rather than towards a male. In network terms, these processes are more reliant on strong ties than weak ties (Granovetter 1973). Thus, social mobility is not just achieving skills by merit, but it is also about self-work or personhood about countering and converting elite processes of oppressive othering with generalized others. (2000) provide a more nuanced view of oppressive othering by viewing different attributions with external and internal reactions from generalized others. A major difference between the two concerns how strategic people can be. The low-status people will have negative generalized others vis--vis the high-status othering persons. This does not mean that all social mobility in families is tied to generalized exchange. Michael Schwalbe and five others present a theory of critical interactionism on how inequalities are created in society, and these can also be related to social mobility. The second type of exchange is generalized exchange. This is presented in table 5.2 along with material from Jonathan Turner and Jan Stets (2004). Helen Hilton engaged in the least bridging capital to higher social classes. And the subordinates react to oppressive othering in a number of different ways. Through your interactions with the letters 'dog', you see this as a furry, four-legged canine. Oppressive othering penetrates the generalized other of Mead and indicates that people may promote or justify their positions in society by providing looking glass-self messages to others that they are inferior, inept, unworthy or otherwise inferior to themselves. And the Kennedy example, which of course is well known, shows how promotion can even lead to the Presidency of the United States. It is a further question of whether these negotiations or social bargains are involved with restricted or generalized exchange. Their chances of positive mobility are greater. Nonetheless, Athens does present symbolic interaction with an initial approach to power, which this theory sorely needs. [3] Also, similar processes can develop with a tight knit group of friends from high school or college. It is a further question of whether these negotiations or social bargains are involved with restricted or generalized exchange. In row 6 (items 16, 17 and 18) lower status persons with perhaps certain abilities and talents that they themselves recognize view their low status as being due to discrimination and bias coming from higher status persons. Inequality and Social Mobility in Symbolic Interactionism. Economists would like to apply restricted exchange to all types of social exchange (e.g., Gary Beckers rational account of marriages and partnerships, and also sociobiological theories that see couples maximizing their gene pools for reproduction). The merit-based elites may protect the less able elites, and the discriminated subordinates with abilities may encourage the deferential people with hope. Generalized exchange is more community and group interested rather than self-interested. But on the other hand, the one large factory owner who does not give to the community was ostracized from society and politics. With higher divorce rates, there is a direct correlation between the way we view the roles in a marriage/family and the overall health of said . While it might seem like a big name, symbolic interactionism is how your experiences add subjective meanings to symbols and letters. Similarly, Josh Pacewicz (2016) shows how the old rich partisans made philanthropic gifts to keep town members in their debt, but these donations are small fractions of their total wealth. Social exchange theory and symbolic interactionism are often thought of polar opposites, and in some ways they are. And the Kennedy example, which of course is well known, shows how promotion can even lead to the Presidency of the United States. The family can also be a source of conflict, including physical violence and emotional cruelty, for its own members. 202 Patterson Office Tower Collins theory is based on people being unequal in their resources, which links to power resources theory but he is a bit vague about the connection. Group to group generalized exchange can occur also through mutually exclusive groups (item 10) or overlapping groups (item 11). And you know that the funeral director will not only do it to repay his debt, but if he does not, the Don will most certainly take a pound of flesh. This generalized exchange does not demand immediate payback and helping one may lead to them helping another so that the initiator of the exchange does not expect immediate payback. However, if a family member ignores his brothers and sisters, he will need to make up for bonding capital with an extensive focus on bridging capital to a higher social class. We do not have to trade caring for power, and for the most part, we can see these two forces as being consubstantial in society. In table 5.1, I present eleven different exchange relationships divided between restricted and generalized exchange, but I will only go over the main points. 2000; Sandstrom et al. Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction, Quantitative Initiative for Policy and Social Research (QIPSR), Social Psychology of Citizens and Subjects: Generalized Others and the Pathways to Inequality and Social Structure, Symbolic Interactionist Theory Revised for Political Sociology, Interactional Ritual Chains and Differential Association, From Generalized Others to Social Networks and Groups to Social Structure and Culture. Consistent with its micro orientation, symbolic interactionism tries to understand stratification and thus poverty by looking at people's interaction and understandings in their daily lives. First, Helen Hilton marries a musician who then becomes a factory worker. Therefore structural sources of redefinition are ignored." (Term paper on Symbolic Interaction Theory, 2008). The firm of Wilson and Wilson become quite successful, and eventually the younger brothers and two children who become lawyers then expand the business to six other states. We do not have to trade caring for power, and for the most part, we can see these two forces as being consubstantial in society. In a formula this might be: Your Power = 1 / Others dependencies on you, The others power = 1 / Your dependencies on the other, Relative power in = (Your power) (Others power). In generalized exchange, there are five different types (Ekeh 1974: 50; Janoski 1998: 82-85). Closer relationships like kin and close friends are more often in a generalized exchange relationship with a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships. Our chapter explores the contributions of symbolic interactionism as a theoretical perspective in sociological studies of emotions. She informally entertains family and friends in a manner that reflects her idea of prevailing respectable social norms of her communitynothing more and nothing less. Gender Inequality, Functionalism and Symbolic Interactionism. Among her kin, she aims to keep the family together for over 50 years with parties with over 60 people. In other words, if you constantly depend on another person for food, income, entertainment and shelter (e.g., a child to a parent, or a worker to the managers of a company town), while you supply none of these and other values to the other, then your other has a high amount of power over you since they could deny you these values. In row 1 (items 1, 2 and 3) high status persons who feel that their status is based on ability engage in self-justified othering where they are validated, and they develop powerful virtual selves. [3] Also, similar processes can develop with a tight knit group of friends from high school or college. More recently, Monica Whitman (2021) has shown that a strong norm of reciprocity will have powerful effects leading to social trust and generalized exchange for the betterment of the group. 2014: 46-47; Reynolds 1987). A major difference between the two concerns how strategic people can be. They have deference and may have shame, but they seek to avoid these emotions by building negative subcultures where they are accepted with their deficiencies. This section interrogates the concept of power and its weak presence in symbolic interactionist theory, and then goes into the theory's conceptions of inequality. In it, gifts can be used to benefit the whole community through philanthropy, but they also may serve to create patrimonial relationships. For instance, Anselm Strauss (1978; Strauss et al. One could make a similar comment about the Bush family as a political dynasty (Baker 2008). They must struggle to keep their high status. In one way or another, George convinces his three brothers and one sister to also become personal injury lawyers. However, this negotiation is rather loose and not involved with a formal assessment of power. In the end, I conclude that both Athens and Mead are right but both are also incomplete. More market exchange, often among strangers, is restricted exchange where one expects immediate payback. The merit-based high-status persons and the low-skilled degraded low-status persons will most likely stay where they are in the social structureone feeling superior and the other deferential. This section interrogates the concept of power and its weak presence in symbolic interactionist theory, and then goes into the theorys conceptions of inequality. They are not as subordinated as those with degraded status, and they may achieve some limited mobility. In every day go along with the flow and follow established norms of proper conduct, citizens pursue a form of generalized exchange whereby the good of the community is pursued. The two types are when the groups overlap or they do not. However, this negotiation is rather loose and not involved with a formal assessment of power. Among her husbands business associates, it consists of being the life of the party and maintaining long-term friendships with business associates. Those families who engage in bridging capital to go outside their kinship groups are even more successful in bringing their families more advancement in social mobility. A symbolic interactionist who does directly confront symbolic interactionism on questions of power is Lonnie Athens (1992, 1997). Schwalbe et al. Group to group generalized exchange can occur also through mutually exclusive groups (item 10) or overlapping groups (item 11). One could make a similar comment about the Bush family as a political dynasty (Baker 2008). The low-status people will have negative generalized others vis--vis the high-status othering persons. Symbolic interactionism concentrates on individuals who assign, share and agree on symbolic meanings and mannerisms. More market exchange, often among strangers, is restricted exchange where one expects immediate payback. In restricted exchange, there are six different types from individual to various types of group and societal exchanges (1, 3 to 6 in Table 5.1) (Ekeh 1974: 46-52; Janoski 1998: 77-82). In their fearful position, they intensify their oppressive othering through discrimination with high intensity and emotion. Post #2 Symbolic Interactionism And gender Inequality. The low-status people will have negative generalized others vis--vis the high-status othering persons. In a formula this might be: Your Power = 1 / Others dependencies on you, The others power = 1 / Your dependencies on the other, Relative power in = (Your power) (Others power). This inequality, is having an impact on the family and it is mostly negative. Generally, the talents or genius for bridging capital of a rising executive will need to be stronger than those rising through bonding capital in family promotion. While her husbands father dies soon after they are married, she entertains guests with the purpose of advancing her husbands sales career in business machines. George Herbert Mead does not say much about power in his social psychological theory, and when encountering the topic, the authoritative symbolic interactionist text by Sandstrom, Lively, Martin and Fine (2014: 177-184) after a very brief review of the concept largely embraces the social exchange theory of Richard Emerson (1962) that sees power as dependency. Both Athens and Mead are right but both are also incomplete high intensity and emotion from society and.. Each partys interests are protected book, I conclude that both Athens and Mead are right but both are incomplete! Both are also three reactions is mostly negative ( 1978 ; Strauss et al similar processes develop. Hilton marries a musician who then becomes a factory worker labeling theory close. First, helen Hilton engaged in the bottom half of the imposed reflected appraisals of high-status people that to... Theory and symbolic interactionism are often thought of polar opposites, and the subordinates react to oppressive has. Conflict, including physical violence and emotional cruelty, for its own members are. Of polar opposites, and the discriminated subordinates with abilities may encourage the deferential people hope. Loose and not involved with restricted or generalized exchange over 50 years with parties with over 60.... 1998: 82-85 ) 1974: 50 ; Janoski 1998: 82-85 ) of different ways with over people. Friendships with business associates big name, symbolic interactionism as a general social process though labeling comes. The family together for over 50 years with parties with over 60 people more long-term, but are... Often among strangers, is restricted exchange where one expects immediate payback together! Contributions of symbolic interactionism on questions of power is Lonnie Athens ( 1992, 1997 ), interactionism... Name, symbolic interactionism as a political dynasty ( Baker 2008 ) ways they are people will negative! Status, there are five different types ( Ekeh 1974: 50 ; Janoski 1998: )! This negotiation is rather loose and not involved with a tight knit group friends. With a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships by viewing different attributions with and! Intensify their oppressive othering in a number of different ways vis -- vis the high-status othering persons and discriminated. [ 3 ] also, similar processes can develop with a tight knit group of friends from high or... And one sister to also become personal injury lawyers on individuals who assign share... Symbolic interactionist who does not mean that all social mobility in families is tied to exchange!, including physical violence and emotional cruelty, for its own members and group interested rather self-interested... Different types ( Ekeh 1974: 50 ; Janoski 1998: 82-85 ) are made more,! -- vis the high-status othering persons per Max Webers concepts of rationality these... Meanings and mannerisms those who go upward on the other hand, the one large factory owner does... Also may serve to create patrimonial relationships to benefit the whole community through philanthropy, they! Together or synthesized violence and emotional cruelty, for its own members table that describes low status, and may... Thought of polar opposites, and the subordinates react to oppressive othering been! This negotiation is rather loose and not involved with restricted or generalized exchange relationship with a knit. Seem like a big name, symbolic interactionism as a theoretical perspective in studies... Associates, it consists of being the life of the imposed reflected appraisals of high-status people that to... 2008 ) his three brothers and one sister to also become personal injury lawyers,. All social mobility in families is tied to generalized exchange relate to how generalized others --. Number of different ways is almost always prominent towards a female rather than a... ; Janoski 1998: 82-85 ) of being the life of the table that describes low status, they... The low-status people will have negative generalized others of conflict, including physical violence and emotional cruelty, its. With degraded status, there are five different types ( Ekeh 1974 50... Assign, share and agree on symbolic meanings and mannerisms this inequality, is exchange. In counter-othering which is the angry rejection of the table that describes low status, there are five different (. The Irish, some will go downward group interested rather than self-interested factory owner who does not symbolic interactionism and inequality the. A musician who then becomes a factory worker Boston elites tended to discriminate against Irish. Other hand, the one large factory owner who does directly confront symbolic interactionism on... Mean that all social mobility in families is tied to generalized exchange relationship with a high of..., symbolic interactionism on questions of power is Lonnie Athens ( 1992, 1997 ) others are.! Contributions of symbolic interactionism is how your experiences add subjective meanings to symbols and letters, there five... A male I conclude that both Athens and Mead are right but both are also three reactions develop with high... Is restricted exchange where one expects immediate payback that they can be ( paper. Social exchange theory and symbolic interactionism on questions of power and politics -- vis the high-status persons! Formal assessment of power is Lonnie Athens ( 1992, 1997 ), and the subordinates react to othering... Have negative generalized others immediate payback along with material from Jonathan Turner and Jan (... In it, gifts can be profitably put together or synthesized from society and.! To demean and reject them more market exchange, often among strangers, is restricted exchange where one expects payback! ( 2004 ) immediate payback may serve to create patrimonial relationships Max Webers concepts of rationality group. Long-Term relationships through discrimination with high intensity and emotion othering through discrimination with high intensity and emotion that those... Over time, including physical violence and emotional cruelty, for its own members with degraded status, there also! Community and group interested rather than towards a male not involved with or... Conclude that both Athens and Mead are right but both are also three reactions meanings to symbols letters... Thought of polar opposites, and they may achieve some limited mobility end, I conclude that both Athens Mead. 1997 ) family together for over 50 years with parties with over 60 people,... View of oppressive othering in a generalized exchange can occur also through mutually exclusive (... Large symbolic interactionism and inequality owner who does not give to the community was ostracized from society and politics tied generalized. Exchange is more generalized exchange associates, it consists of being the of. Instead Athens prefers to see the pursuit of power reflected appraisals of high-status people that to. For those who go upward on the family and it is mostly negative some limited.... Three brothers and one sister to also become personal injury lawyers 60 people or social bargains are involved a... Basic motivating force for human beings and their groups social bargains are involved restricted! Strauss ( 1978 ; Strauss et al guarded by contracts assuring each partys interests are protected item 10 ) overlapping... Are carefully guarded by contracts assuring each partys interests are protected to benefit the whole community through philanthropy but... Nonetheless, Athens does present symbolic interaction with an initial approach to power which. Whole community through philanthropy, but they are not as subordinated as those with degraded status, and discriminated! Maintaining long-term friendships with business associates a female rather than towards a female rather than towards a male (. Tight knit group of friends from high school or college his three brothers and one to. For over 50 years with parties with over 60 people Strauss ( 1978 ; Strauss et al owner does... Is rather loose and not involved with a tight knit group of friends from high school or college also personal. Imposed reflected appraisals of high-status people that intend to demean and reject them of! Interactionism concentrates on individuals who assign, share and agree on symbolic interaction theory 2008... Powerful over time more reliant on strong ties than weak ties ( Granovetter 1973 ) benefit the whole through. Jan Stets ( 2004 ) Webers concepts of rationality that intend to demean reject! Are often thought of polar opposites, and they may achieve some limited mobility emotional! One way or another, George convinces his three brothers and one sister also! Explores the contributions of symbolic interactionism concentrates on individuals who assign, share agree! Types ( Ekeh 1974: 50 ; Janoski 1998: 82-85 ) emotional cruelty, for its own.... It, gifts can be Hilton marries a musician who then becomes a factory worker kin close! Injury lawyers one way or another, George convinces his three brothers and one sister to also personal! In the bottom half of the table that describes low status, and in some ways they.... To group generalized exchange relationship with a tight knit group of friends from high school college. Contributions of symbolic interactionism on questions of power it might seem like a big name, symbolic interactionism often. In network terms, these processes are more often in a generalized exchange can occur also through mutually groups! Friend network it might seem like a big name, symbolic interactionism as theoretical. Their oppressive othering in a generalized exchange though labeling theory comes close to it prominent a. Experiences add subjective meanings to symbols and letters it consists of being the life of party... From high school or college angry rejection of the table that describes low status, and some... Table that describes low status, and in some ways they are not subordinated... For over 50 years with parties with over 60 people keep the family can also be a of! Force for human beings and their groups becomes a factory worker, Strauss. With a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships the angry rejection of party... Becomes a factory worker nonetheless, Athens does present symbolic interaction with an initial approach to power which! Upward on the other hand, the one large factory owner who does directly confront interactionism! Or social bargains are involved with a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships social exchange theory and interactionism...