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In addition to the languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes many ancient languages, such as Egyptian, which forms a distinct branch of the family; and within the Semitic family, Akkadian, Hebrew, Phoenician, other Canaanite languages, Amorite, Ugaritic and Aramaic. [17][18] Victor Porkhomovsky suggests that the label "Hamito-Semitic" is at this point simply convention and no more implies an opposition between Semitic and "Hamitic" languages than "Indo-European" implies a "European" and an Indic branch. [99] p-Ogoni [67][68], An important development in the history of Afroasiatic scholarship - and the history of African linguistics - was the creation of the "Hamitic theory" or "Hamitic hypothesis" by Lepsius, fellow Egyptologist Christian Bunsen, and linguist Christian Bleek. Gemination in particular is one of the typical features of AA. With the exception of its Semitic branch, all branches of the Afroasiatic family are . innovation: narrowing of application of v. to angry calling out), (Sem., Cush, innovation: > n. 'covering' > 'rind, bark'), (root #447+ * iter. Though estimations vary widely, it is believed by scholars to have been spoken as a single language around 12,000 to 18,000 years ago , that is, between 16,000 and 10,000 BC. 2.10. London, Bloomsbury, 1998. p-Potou-Akanic [109] Roots that may have contained sequences that were possible in Proto-Afroasiatic but are disallowed in the daughter languages are assumed to have undergone consonant dissimilation or assimilation.[110][111]. Dictionary - Vladimir E. Orel 2015-11-02 This dictionary is a fundamental source of information on the extinct proto-language of the ancient Hamito-Semites, the Proto-Hamito-Semitic language, and . Greenberg, 1958 D. Cohen,. 'be, exist'), (root seen also in #983 + probably *s caus. [16] Several issues with the label "Hamito-Semitic" have led to its decline in use by later scholars. p-Semitic, Khoisan [76] It may have originally mostly biconsonantal, to which various affixes (verbal extensions) were then added and lexicalized. South Bauchi Proto-Afro-Asiatic is generally considered the oldest accepted one, though it's not known exactly how long ago it was spoken. In Afro-Asiatic, there are five main families. [171][172] In Akkadian and Egyptian, the suffixes appear to be reduced forms of the independent pronouns (see Pronouns); the obvious correspondence between the endings in the two branches has been argued to show that Egyptian and Semitic are closely related. [121] This structure is particularly visible in the verbs,[153] and is particularly noticeable in the triliteral Semitic verb. Proto-Afroasiatic is a reconstructed language. p-Koman Afro-Asiatic is divided into six branches: Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, Cushitic, Chadic and Omotic. Africa is divided by geographical features, including the Sahara desert and the Ethiopian mountains. innovation: generalization of pl. [101][a] The emphatic consonants are typically formed deeper in the throat than the others;[99] they can be realized variously as glottalized, pharyngealized, uvularized, ejective, and/or implosive consonants in the different branches. [147][148] Berber instead contrasts between the "free state" and the "annexed state," the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions. However, not one of Militarev's proposed 32 agricultural roots can be considered diagnostic of cultivation. Both works provide highly divergent reconstructions and have been heavily criticized by other scholars. [122] In some Chadic and some Omotic languages every syllable has to have a tone, whereas in most Cushitic languages this is not the case. Due to isolation, Icelandic has changed the least and is most similar to Old Norse, and therefore probably also to Proto-Germanic. innovation: 'grow' > 'live,' whence Eg. Archaeology and the study of oral traditions helps linguists find connections between language families. crcst test prep; crcst free test questions; paid test; crcst exam prep notes; subscribe p-Akokoid [44], The c. 30 Omotic languages are still mostly undescribed by linguists. Afroasiatic languages have over 500 million native speakers, which is the fourth-largest number of native speakers of any language family (after Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, and NigerCongo). [71] In the end, Meinhof's classification included languages from every family in Africa that is recognized by modern linguistics. The Proto-Afroasiatic Consonant System. [12] Each component of this term was derived from the name of a Biblical son of Noah as detailed in the Book of Genesis: Semitic from his first-born son Shem, and Hamitic from his second son Ham (Genesis 5:32). innovation: specialization of meaning to plant growth), (Berber, e.g., Shilh agafay 'cloud,' implies a 2nd root shape *-gaap-), to impel, make move (by pushing, pulling), (root #311+old Afroasiatic pl. n. pref. [54] These five or six branches remain the academic consensus on the family. [183][184] In the Chadic family alone, there are two different roots for "two,"[185] and Berber and Semitic likewise have two different branch-internal roots for "two". p-Gurunsi Under East Semitic rose Akkadian and Babylonian. Item Weight : 11.2 ounces Dimensions : 5.75 x 0.75 x 9 inches Best Sellers Rank: #1,696,866 in Books ( See Top 100 in Books) #2,811 in Comparative Religion (Books) Customer Reviews: 3 ratings Videos Help others learn more about this product by uploading a video! redup. The Proto-Afrasian Phonological System Unlike the comparative-historical study of the Indo-European languagefamily, which has a long history, the comparative-historical study of the Afrasian language familyis still not far advanced, though enormous progress has been made in recent years. Map of Afro-Asiatic languages distribution (click to enlarge it) Theodor Benfy found that Egyptian and Semitic languages were similar in 1844, and he classified them under the Semito-Hamitic language family. It is, rather, a comparison of Proto-Indo-European with Proto-Afroasiatic. Allan Bomhard's own reconstructions of Proto-Afroasiatic roots (and phonology) seem to be biased toward Proto-Indo-European and Nostratic roots . [130], Many AA languages use prefixes or suffixes (verbal extensions) to encode various pieces of information about the verb. There are multiple possibilities: Egyptian had already undergone radical changes from Proto-Afroasiatic before it was recorded, the Afroasiatic family has so far been studied with an excessively Semito-centric approach, or Afroasiatic is a typological, not a genetic group of languages. It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques. The "s-causative" may be reflected in Hausa (as -r), however this may be a language internal development. The proto-language of each Afroasiatic branch developed its own distinct vocabulary of food production, further supporting the view that herding and cultivation emerged separately in each branch after the proto-Afroasiatic period ( 7, 8 ). The prefixes ti and it mean she. >>14700322 >Proto-Semitic language contact with PIE implies the Semitic languages themselves come from J Caucasians. It also fully incorporates the most up-to-date evidence from the distinctive African branches of the family, Cushitic, Chadic, and Omotic. innovation: *agaw- 'cooked grain,' stem + *w n. innovation: 'not want' > 'not need,' hence 'be sated'), (Eg., Sem. The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. p-Nilo-Saharan Linguistic guesstimates or phylogenetic speculation date the proto-language (and thus the homeland) within a wide range, from 15,000 to 6,000 years ago. Sandawe derivation by addition of *-u- tr. [141] However, the number and types of cases varies across AA and also within the individual branches. The "t-stem" may be reflected in some forms in Hausa; however may also derive from a language internal development and has no cognates elsewhere in Chadic. Retard. [54] Greenberg rejected the Afroasiatic classification of languages that Meinhof had classified as "Hamitic" based on racial and anthropological data. Proto-Afroasiatic English gloss Notes 1. p-Aroid [31] They are all spoken in southwest Ethiopia except for the Ganza language, spoken in Sudan. There is also some evidence from. p-Central Chadic The following list of Proto-Afroasiatic reconstructions is from Ehret (1995). [115] James P. Allen has demonstrated that slightly different rules apply to Egyptian: for instance, Egyptian allows two identical consonants in some roots, and disallows velars from occurring with pharyngeals. innovation: addition of *t n. [112] Greenberg divided Semitic consonants into four types: "back consonants" (glottal, pharyngeal, uvular, laryngeal, and velar consonants), "front consonants" (dental or alveolar consonants), liquid consonants, and labial consonants. Oko and touches on external evidence from Afroasiatic cognate languages. innovation: derivation of v. 'to sleep' by addition of *n non-fin. [65] He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius argued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages. [173] While some scholars posit an AA origin for this form, it is possible that the Berber and Cushitic forms are independent developments,[130] as they show significant differences from the Egyptian and Semitic forms. There is some evidence from Coptic, but this may be unrelated to AA. [49][48] Arabic, spoken in both Asia and Africa, has around 300 million native speakers, while the Ethiopian Amharic has around 25 million. Omotic is the most controversial member of Afro-Asiatic. *y: attributive noun and attributive deverbative suffix: 2a. Shabo p-Fula-Sereer innovation: shift to outflow of water, not from body; root *-sa- seen in #540 + *t dur. Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1994. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian) : vowels, tone, consonants, and vocabulary / Christopher Ehret Get this Comments (0) Librarian's View Copyright Status Online In the Library Order a copy Request this item to view in the Library's reading rooms using your library card. The root form of the verb has only three consonants in common. [11], Greenberg reintroduced the name "Afroasiatic" in 1960, a name seemingly coined by Maurice Delafosse (as French afroasiatique) in 1914. Kadu [77], Conjugation of verbs using prefixes that mark person, number, and gender can be found [76], There is no consensus where the original homeland (Urheimat) of the first Afroasiatic speakers was located. innovation: narrowing of meaning to particular kind of joining, by sewing), to split in two, split one from the other, (proposed source: #502, with regular PAA * > PBA *n; Eg., Berber, Sem. ; PC variant *damn-), (Ch., Eg., Sem. Atlantic (Guinea) [99], The majority of AA languages are tonal languages: phonemic tonality is found in Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, but absent in Berber and Semitic. Proto-Afroasiatic, sometimes also referred to as Proto-Afrasian, is the reconstructed proto-language from which all modern Afroasiatic languages are descended. These classifications of language sub-sets vary according to different texts. [95], "Afro-Asiatic" redirects here. [136] These so-called "internal a" or "broken" plurals are securely attested in Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic, although it is unclear if the Chadic examples are an independent development. Some languages have an additional feminine plural form in -t that is not listed here. p-Surmic Afrasian. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is of great antiquity; experts tend to place it in the Mesolithic Period at about 15,000-10,000 bce. Gumuz p-North Bauchi SLEC Som. [85][86] Scholar Jared Diamond and archaeologist Peter Bellwood have taken up Militarev's arguments as part of their general argument that the spread of linguistic macrofamilies (such as Indo-European, Bantu, and Austro-Asiatic) can be associated with the development of agriculture; they argue that there is clear archaeological support for farming spreading from the Levant into Africa via the Nile valley. Afroasiatic. [34] Cushitic does not appear to be related to the attested ancient languages known from its area, Meroitic or Old Nubian. [29], There are about 30,[34] 50,[35] or 70[36] Cushitic languages, spoken around the Horn of Africa and in Sudan and Tanzania. The other three are very closely related and it is not hard for, say, a Dane to learn to understand a Swede. [133], A widespread pattern of gender and number marking in Afroasiatic is a consonant N for masculine, T for feminine, and N for plural. [6][7], with the latter two having fallen out of favor in English but still seeing frequent usage in other languages, such as German. Proto-Chadic reconstruction is in its infancy, Proto-Cushitic is even less developed, and according to Glottolog it's not demonstrable that Omotic languages are even related to each other, let alone as part of Afro-Asiatic. p-Igboid innovation: 'knee'; Berber *afud < *puuz), to be finished, come to an end, be used up, (Sem., Cush. [94], Several Afroasiatic languages have large numbers of consonants, and it is likely that Proto-Afroasiatic did as well:[95] Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova reconstruct 32 consonant phonemes,[96] while Christopher Ehret reconstructs 42. [153][168][h], Some AA branches have what is called a "suffix conjugation", formed by using pronominal suffixes to indicate person, gender, and number and a verbal adjective. Dalby, Andrew. Berkeley: University of California Press. Linguists use the term "state" to refer to different things in different languages. [104] Several Omotic languages have "sibilant harmony", meaning that all sibilants (s, sh, z, ts, etc.) El proto-afroasitico , a veces denominado proto-afrasiano , es el proto-lenguaje reconstruido del que descienden todas las lenguas afroasiticas modernas . However, since the 1970s and '80s, comparisons of other Chadic subject pronouns with the Hausa ones have convinced most scholars that the similarity to the prefix conjugation is incidental. The reconstruction of Proto-Afroasiatic is problematic and . Olukumi This name is possibly based upon the root "-b-r" ( . Among the countries included in this language family are: Chad, Niger, Nigeria, Sudan, Egypt, Algeria, and Ethiopia. [159] The Egyptian verbal system diverges greatly from that found in the other branches. [64] The French orientalist Guillaume Postel had also pointed out similarities between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic in 1538, and Hiob Ludolf noted similarities also to Ge'ez and Amharic in 1701. [183], Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of borrowing. Yendang Summary of Numbered Sound Shift Rules; Index 1. WCh WOT *t: . [130], The assignment of nouns and pronouns to either masculine or feminine gender is present in all branches - but not all languages - of the Afroasiatic family. Pre-Proto-Semitic Roots (Additional to those presented in Ehret 1989) Appendix 2. "[81] The African languages of Afroasiatic are not more closely related to each other than they are to Semitic, as one would expect if only Semitic had remained in an Asian AA homeland while all other branches had spread from there. p-Gbaya + stem; PS *lisn 'tongue' is a separate and distinct derivation from the same verb root), (Sem., Eg., Ch. p-Kongo ), (root #695 + *f iter.? Consider also the debate over the origins of the Afroasiastic or Afrasan languages and cultures, a linguistic group with a wide geographical distribution covering the Middle East and Northern. Berlin, New York: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011. . Proto-Chadic and Proto-Cushitic are likely even older. [192] Thus, it is possible that the numerals in Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic are more closely related, whereas the Cushitic and Chadic numerals are more closely related to each other. [129] Full or partial reduplication of the verb is often used to derive forms showing repeated action (pluractionality), though it is unclear if this is an inherited feature or has been widely borrowed. ), (Sem., Eg. [51] The classification within West Semitic remains contested. At the same time, linguistic similarities such as vowel changes help show relationships among languages. New York: Elsevier, 1977. [121] Besides for Semitic, vocalic templates are well attested for Cushitic and Berber,[154] where, along with Chadic, it is less productive; it is absent in Omotic. [26] The second is the Guanche language, which was formerly spoken on the Canary Islands and went extinct in the 17th century CE. [23] In the past, Berber languages were spoken throughout North Africa except in Egypt;[24] since the 7th century CE, however, they have been heavily affected by Arabic and have been replaced by it in many places. [198] Andrzej Zaborski refers to Orel and Stolbova's reconstructions as "controversial", and Ehret's as "not acceptable to many scholars". innovation: narrowing of meaning to tr. There is an obvious trend (probably driven by Semitic and Egyptian researchers) to place the Afroasiatic Homeland near one of the many proposed Semitic homelands, i.e.